OPTICS

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LIGHT SOURCES AND IMPORTANCE OF RELEASE

Entry of light into the eye

Existence of two types of light sources:

- Primary sources (stars, sun ...);

- Scattering objects (planets, satellites, white walls ...).

A necessary condition for vision: the entrance of light into the eye.xistence de deux types de sources de lumière :

Rectilinear propagation of light

The light beam.

Model of the light.

Direction of propagation of light.

Own shadow, shadow and shadow cone: interpretation in terms of light rays.

Sun-Earth-Moon

Phases of the Moon, eclipses: simplified interpretation.

Colored lights and color of objects

First notions of colored lights:

- As a filter;

- Continuous spectrum;

- Superposition of colored lights.

First ideas on the color of objects.

By absorbing light, the matter receives energy. It heats up and transfers part of the energy received from outside the form of heat.

Lenses: homes and pictures

Principle of image formation in geometrical optics.

Concentration of energy with the thin lens convergent.

Focal length.

Safety: danger of direct observation of the sun through a converging lens.

Modeling of the eye.

Vision results from the formation of an image on the retina.

Experimental approach to corrections of the defects of the eye (myopia, hyperopia).

Speed of light and sound, signal propagation

- The light can propagate in a vacuum and in transparent media like air, water and glass.
Speed of light in vacuum (3x108 m / s or 300,000 km / s).
Orders of magnitude of distances from Earth to a few stars and galaxies in the Universe or duration of propagation of light corresponding.

- Sound travels in matter media (solid, liquid and gas) and it does not spread into space.
Magnitude of the speed of sound in air: 340 m / s.
Sounds too intense have implications for the hearing.

- A transmitter (light source, sound source, transmitting antenna) transmits a signal that propagates this signal can be received by a receiver (eye, ear, receiving antenna).
The man is surrounded by a multitude of signals that carry information.

A dispersive prism
Characterization of radiation.
Descartes' laws of refraction for radiation (one of the media being air).
Dispersion of white light by a prism.
Change in the index of a transparent medium according to the radiation passing through it; qualitative interpretation of the scattering of light by a prism.

The emission spectra and absorption.

Emission spectra
Continuous spectra of thermal origin.
Line spectra.

Absorption spectra
Absorption bands of colored solutions.
Absorption lines characteristic of an atom or ion.

Application to astrophysics

Visibility of an object

Role of the eye in direct view of objects. Propagation of light: model of the light-no-object.
Converging lenses, diverging lenses. Simple screening criteria.

Images formed by optical systems

Images provided by a plane mirror

Observation and location of the image of an object given by a plane mirror.
Conjugated image point of an object point. Laws of reflection.

Images provided by a converging lens

Observation and location of images given by a convergent lens.
Geometric modeling of a thin lens convergent optical center, fireplaces, focal distance, vergence.
Analytical model: relations conjugation and thin converging lens magnification.
Magnifying glass.

An example of optical device

Experimental modeling of an optical instrument simple telescope, spotting scope or binoculars, camera projection or rear projection...

The light wave model

Experimental observation of diffraction in monochromatic light and white light (irization).

Wave model of light speed, wavelength in vacuum, frequency :

λ = c.T = c/ν.

Influence of the size of the aperture or obstacle on the observed phenomenon; angular beam diffracted by a slit or a straight wire of width a :

θ = λ / a.

Monochromatic light, polychromatic light, frequency and color.
Propagation of light in transparent media, index of the medium.
Highlighted the phenomenon of dispersion of white light through a prism: the index of a transparent medium depends on the frequency of light.

- Produce images, see

Formation of an image

Image formed by a converging thin lens

Graphic constructions of the image:
- An object plane perpendicular to the optical axis.
- A point object at infinity.
Conjugation relations in algebraic form, magnification.
Validity of this study : Gauss conditions.

Image formed by a converging spherical mirror
Summit, home, principal optical axis, focal length.
Graphic constructions of the image:
- An object plane perpendicular to the principal optical axis.
- A point object at infinity.

Some optical instruments

The microscope

Brief description and role of each component: condenser (spherical mirror), objective eye.
Modeling a system of two thin lenses:
- Graphical construction of the intermediate image and the image of an object plane perpendicular to the optical axis.
- Characteristics of the intermediate image and final image by building and / or application forms of conjugation.
- Apparent diameter.
- Standard magnification.
- Eye-ring.

Telescope and Newtonian one

Brief description and role of each component :
- Telescope : objective eye.
- Newtonian : spherical mirror, plane mirror target.
Modeling of the telescope by an afocal system of two thin lenses and modeling of a Newton telescope with a mirror system, thin lenses :
- Graphical construction of the intermediate image and the image of an object plane perpendicular to the optical axis.
- Characteristics of the intermediate image and final image by building and / or application forms of conjugation.
- Apparent diameter.
- Standard magnification.
- Eye-ring.

MECHANICS

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- FROM GRAVITY (or gravitation)... TO MECHANICAL ENERGY.

- Gravitational Interaction

Brief presentation of the solar system

Attractive action exerted by remote /
- The Sun on each planet;
- A planet on an object close to it;
- An object to another object because of their mass.
Gravity is an attractive interaction between two objects that have mass, it depends on their distance.

Gravitation governs the whole universe (solar system, stars and galaxies).

Weight and mass

Remote action exerted by the Earth on an object in its neighborhood: weight of a body.
The weight P and the mass m of an object are two quantities of different kinds and they are proportional.
The unit of weight is the newton (N).
The relationship of proportionality is expressed by P = mg

An object has:
- An energy position close to the Earth;
- Energy of motion called kinetic energy.
The sum of its kinetic energy of position and is its mechanical energy.
Conservation of energy during a fall.

- Kinetic energy and road safety

The kinetic energy: the relationship giving the kinetic energy of a solid translation is:
Ec = 1 / 2 m.v².
The kinetic energy is measured in joules (J).
The braking distance is growing faster than the speed.

- The Universe in motion and time

- Movements and forces

Relativity of motion

Principle of inertia

Effects of a force on the motion of a body. Role of body mass

Statement of the principle of inertia for a terrestrial observer, "every body perseveres in its state of rest or uniform motion if the forces acting on it cancel out"

Universal gravitation

The gravitational interaction between two bodies.

Gravity result of gravity.
Comparison of the weight of one body on earth and the moon.

Trajectory of a projectile.
Interpretation of the movement of the Moon (or satellite) by extrapolating the motion of a projectile.

- The fundamental interactions

- Elementary Particles

The constituents of matter: neutrons, protons, electrons.
Elementary charge.

- Fundamental interactions

- The mass and the gravitational interaction, Newton's law.
- Expenses and electrical interaction, Coulomb's law, direction, meaning, value:
F = Kqq'/d2 with k = 9x109 IS
Electrification phenomena.
Insulators. Drivers; charge carriers: electrons and ions
- The nucleon and the strong interaction.
Two interactions at work in the kernel: the Coulomb repulsion between protons offset up to uranium, in an attractive interaction of intense but short range.

- Interactions and cohesion of the material at various scales

astronomical scale
atomic scale and human
across the nucleus.

- Forces, work and energy

- FORCES AND MOTION

- Motion of a rigid body

1. Vector speed of a point of the solid
2. Centre of inertia of a solid
3. Translational motion of a solid
4. Movement of a solid rotation around a fixed axis, angular velocity

- Forces acting on a macroscopic solid

Actions on a solid examples of effects (maintaining balance, setting in motion of translation, rotation, deformation)

- An approach to Newton's laws applied to the center of inertia

1st law : The principle of inertia
This principle is true that in some benchmarks
These repositories are called Galilean.
Second law : Appearance Semi-Quantitative comparison of the sum of the forces and the variation of the velocity vector of center of mass in a Galilean.
Third law : The principle of reciprocal actions

- MAGNETISM. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES

Magnetic field

Action of a magnet, a current, a very short needle.
Magnetic field vector B : direction, meaning, value and unit.
Examples of magnetic field lines, uniform magnetic field.
Superposition of two magnetic fields (vector addition)

Magnetic field created by a current

Proportionality of the field value B and the current in the absence of magnetic media.
Magnetic field created by:
- A straight current;
- A solenoid.

Electromagnetic forces

Laplace's law :

management, direction, value of the force

Electromagnetic coupling

Conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. Role of Laplace forces. Observation of the effect associated with the reciprocal motion of a circuit in a magnetic field: conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy.

- MECHANICAL WORK AND ENERGY

- Work of a force

Concepts of work force

Possible effects of a force whose point of application moves.

Working of a constant force

Work unit: the joule (symbol : J).

Expression of the work of the weight of a body.
Engine work, work-resistant.

Power work of one or more forces

- Work: a mode of energy transfer

Work and Kinetic Energy

In a terrestrial reference, experimental study of free fall of a body near the Earth's work weight :

WAB(P) = Δ[(1/2)MVG2 ]

Energy interpretation, definition of the kinetic energy of a solid translation.
Generalization: a solid translation subjected to various forces : (1/2)MVB2 - (1/2)MVA2= ΣWAB(Fext)

Work and gravitational potential energy

Potential energy of a strong interaction with the Earth ;

Special case situations are located near the Earth.

Relationship : Epp = Mgz .

Conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy in the case of free fall.

Work and internal energy

Some other effects of work received (elastic deformation, temperature rise, changes in physico-chemical).
Concept of internal energy.

- Heat transfer

Work can produce a given rise in temperature of a body. A similar rise in temperature can be achieved by transfer of energy in another form: heat transfer; microscopic appearance.
Other mode of energy transfer: radiation.

- To produce sounds, listen

Production of sound by musical instruments

Vibrating mechanical system associated with a system for coupling with the air
- Illustration by simple
- For a few real instruments

Vibration modes

Vibration of a rope stretched between two fixed points

Highlighting modes of vibration by sinusoidal excitation: fundamental mode, harmonic quantification of their frequency.
Nodes and antinodes of vibration.

Free oscillations of a plucked string or struck: interpretation of the sound emitted by the superposition of these modes.

Vibration of a column of air

Highlighting modes of vibration by sinusoidal excitation.
Simplified model of excitation of a column of air through a reed or a bevel : selection of frequencies emitted by the length of the air column.

Wave interpretation.
Reflection on a single fixed obstacle

Observing the reflection of a wave on a fixed obstacle; qualitative interpretation of the shape of the reflected wave.
For a sine wave incident.
Wave: superposition of the incident wave and sine wave reflected from a fixed obstacle.

Reflections on two fixed obstacles: quantification of observed modes.

Wave of any shape between two fixed obstacles: recurrent imposed by the distance L between the two fixed points and the speed v, the period is 2L/v.

Standing wave between two fixed obstacles: quantification methods ; relation 2L = nλ (n integer); justification of own frequencies :

nn = nV/2L.

Transposition to a column of air excited by a loudspeaker

Qualitative observation of the phenomenon.

Musical acoustics and physics of sound
Audible frequency range, sensitivity of the ear.
Pitch of a sound and fundamental frequency, timbre: the importance of harmonics and their attack transients and extinction.
Loudness, intensity reference :

Sound level: the decibel sound,

Range: octaves, tempered scale.

- Temporal evolution of mechanical systems

Newtonian mechanics

Qualitative connection between ΣFext and ΔvG.

Comparison ΔvG corresponding to equal intervals of time for forces of different values (result of the activity).

Introduction ΔvG /Δt

Acceleration :

aG = lim Δt à 0 (ΔvG /Δt) = dvG/dt ;

acceleration vector (direction, sense, value).

Role of the mass.
Newton's second law applied to the center of inertia.
Importance of the choice of the reference in the study of motion of the center of inertia of a solid: Galilean.
Newton's third law: law of reciprocal actions.

Case Study

Vertically falling of an solid object

Force of gravity, the notion of uniform gravity field.

- Fall vertical friction

Application of Newton's second law of motion to a vertical drop: forces applied to the solid (weight, buoyancy, fluid friction force) differential equation of motion resolution by an iterative numerical method, the original scheme and asymptotic regime ( called "permanent"), speed limit; notion of characteristic time.

- Vertical free fall

Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, acceleration independent of the mass of the object.
Analytical solution of the differential equation of motion importance of initial conditions.

Plane movements

- Movements of projectiles in a uniform gravitational field

Application of Newton's second law to the movement of center of mass of a projectile in a uniform gravitational field in the case where friction can be neglected.
Parametric equations hours.
Equation of the trajectory.
Importance of initial conditions.

- Satellites and Planets

Kepler's laws (circular or elliptical path).
Heliocentric and geocentric reference systems.
Study of a uniform circular motion, velocity, acceleration vector, normal acceleration.
Statement of the law of universal gravitation for objects whose mass distribution is spherically symmetric and the distance to their large size (recall).
Application of Newton's second law of inertia at the center of a satellite or a planet: centripetal force, radial acceleration, modeling the movement of the centers of inertia of the satellites and planets using a circular motion and uniform applications ( period of revolution, speed, altitude, geostationary satellite).
Qualitative interpretation of weightlessness in the case of a satellite in uniform circular motion.

Oscillating systems

Presentation of various mechanical oscillating systems

Pendulum weight, simple and robust system clock-spring free oscillation : equilibrium position, deviation from equilibrium, X angle, amplitude, damping (pseudo-periodic regime, aperiodic regime), pseudo-isochronous period and small oscillations, natural period.
Expression of the natural period of a pendulum simple justification for the form of expression by dimensional analysis.

The {object-spring} mechanism

Return force exerted by a spring.

Study dynamics of the system "solid" : choice of repository, balance of forces, under the second law of Newton, differential equation, analytical solution in the case of zero friction. Natural period.

Introduction to the temporal evolution of systems

Present, through the documents most diverse real-life situations where the time evolution is of particular importance: seismic waves, mechanical vibrations, movements swings, Earth-Moon laser, increasing the speed of transport (Train high speed), increasing the clock frequency of computers, time scale of plate tectonics, and launch a rocket into orbit satellites, the Mir space station falling, parachute jumping and the elastic, improving sports performance, etc..

- Propagation of a wave

Mechanical waves progressive

Introduction

From the examples given in operation generate the following definition of a mechanical wave:
"Called the phenomenon of mechanical wave propagation of a disturbance in a medium without material transport".
Speed.
Longitudinal waves, transverse.
Sound waves as longitudinal waves of compression-expansion.
General properties of waves:
- A wave propagates from the source in all directions available to them.
- The disturbance is transmitted from place to place, transfer of energy without transporting matter.
- The speed of propagation of a wave is a property of the medium.
- Two waves can cross without disturbing each other.

One-dimensional wave

Notion of one-dimensional wave.
Notion of delay: the disturbance at the point M at time t is that which previously existed at a point M 'at

t' = t - τ : with τ = M'M/v, τ is the delay and v the speed (for non-dispersive media)..

Mechanical progressive periodic wave

Notion of periodic wave.
Temporal frequency, period, spatial periodicity.
Sine wave, period, frequency, wavelength, ; relationship :

λ = v .T = v /N

Diffraction in the case of sine wave : experimental demonstration.
Influence of the size of the aperture or obstacle on the observed phenomenon.
Dispersal : evidence of the influence of frequency on the speed of the wave on the surface of the water dispersion medium term.

- The time evolution of systems and the measurement of time

This part is considered a revised year-end, around the time measurement. It has no theoretical knowledge or skills due new. The examples are not exhaustive and the teacher is free to expand.
How to measure time?
- From a radioactive decay (age of the Earth, age of cave paintings ...)
- From periodic phenomena
. maintained electrical oscillator (LC oscillator)
. movements of the stars
. rotation of the Earth
. pendulum clocks
. atomic clocks: definition of the second.
• Measure length to determine length
- From the propagation of a mechanical wave (ultrasonic range finder, ultrasound, sonar ...)
- From the propagation of light waves (laser ranging, Earth-Moon distance ...)
- The meter defined from the second and the speed of light
- The meter and the seconds pendulum
- History of the measurement of longitude
• Measure length to determine a speed
- Measure the speed of sound
- Measuring the speed of light

ELECTRICITY

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All metals conduct electricity. All solids do not conduct electrical current. Electrical conduction in metals is interpreted by moving electrons.

All aqueous solutions do not conduct electrical current.
Conduction of electrical current is interpreted by a displacement of ions.

CHEMISTRY

From air to molecule

Air composition

A molecular description to understand

A first particle model to interpret the compressibility of a gas.

Distinction between mixed and pure body for air and water vapor.

The existence of the molecule.

The three states of water through the molecular description:
- A gas is dispersed and disorganized;
- The liquid state is compact and disordered;
- Solid state is compact, crystalline solids are ordered.

Interpretation of mass conservation during state changes and in mixtures.

Metals, electrons and ions

- Metals daily

Some base metal : iron, zinc, aluminum, copper, silver and gold.

- Conduction and electrical structure of matter

The electron: understanding the electrical conduction in metals

All metals conduct electricity. All solids do not conduct electrical current. Electrical conduction in metals is interpreted by moving electrons.
 

The ion: Understanding the electrical conduction in aqueous solutions

All aqueous solutions do not conduct electrical current.
Conduction of electrical current is interpreted by a displacement of ions.
Constituents of the atom: nucleus and electrons.
Atoms and molecules are electrically neutral, the electron and the ions are electrically charged.
 

- Some tests for recognition of ions

The forms of Na⁺, Cl^-, Cu^{2 +}, Fe²⁺ and Fe^{3 +}.
Areas of acidity and alkalinity in aqueous solution.
A neutral aqueous solution contains as many hydrogen ions H⁺ than OH^- hydroxide ions.
In an acid solution, there are more hydrogen H⁺ ions than  HO^-hydroxide ions.
The dangers of concentrated acid or alkaline products.
 

- Reaction between iron and hydrochloric acid interpretation

- Hydrogen and chloride ions are present in a solution of hydrochloric acid.
- Criteria for recognition of a chemical change: the disappearance of reactants and appearance of products.
 

- Battery (lectrochemical cell) and chemical energy

- The chemical species present in a cell containing the chemical energy of which is transferred in other forms of energy when operating.

- The energy involved in a pile from a chemical reaction: the consumption of reagents results in "wear" the battery.
 

- Summary of chemical species

Inventory and classification of some chemical species
Chemical species and natural synthetic chemical species

Ionic molar conductivity, l_i, and the relationship between ionic conductivity and molar conductivity of a solution

 BrØnsted.

Some common acids and bases.
Acid / base pair.
Pairs of water :

H3O⁺/H2O ; H2O/HO^-_(aq).

Water is an ampholyte.

Redox reactions

Examples of redox reactions such as reactions involving electron transfer.
From the writing of each of the reactions, the emergence, in simple cases, the definition of an oxidizer and a reducing agent.
Couple oxidative / reductive.
Highlighting the need for a method and a formalism to write the equation of a redox reaction.
Using the periodic table to give examples of reducing agents (metals) and among non-oxidizing metals (dihalogen and oxygen).
 

Assays direct

The chemical reaction as a tool for determining the quantities of matter.
Using a table describing the evolution of the system during the assay.
Equivalence in a dosage.

The creative chemistry

Introduction: The issues facing the chemical

Slow and fast changes

- Identification of experimental changes fast and slow.
- Identification of experimental kinetic factors: temperature and concentration of reactants.
- Reminders on couples oxidizing / reducing and writing equations of redox reactions.

Time tracking of a transformation

- Plotting of curves of change of amount of substance or concentration of a species and the progress of the reaction over time: using the table describing the evolution of the chemical system, operating experiences.
- Speed of response:
Setting the volume rate of reaction expressed in units of quantity of material per unit time and volume.

v = (1/V) x (dx/dt )  where x is the progress of the reaction and V the volume of the solution.
Changes in the rate of reaction over time.
- Half-reaction noted t_1/2 :
Definition and determination methods.
Choosing a method for monitoring the transformation depending on the value of t_1/2.
A new analysis technique, spectrophotometry: absorbance A quantity measured by the spectrophotometer.
Relationship between absorbance and concentration of a species effective color solution for a given wavelength and for a given thickness of crossing solution.
Monitoring the kinetics of chemical transformation by spectrophotometry.

What interpretation given to the microscopic level?

Interpretation of the chemical reaction under shock e effective.
Interpretation of the influence of the concentration of reactive species and temperature on the number of shocks and shock efficient per unit of time.
 

Chemical transformation is not always complete and the reaction takes place in both directions

- Introduction of pH and its measurement.
- Identification of an experimental chemical transformation given a final progress different from the maximum progress.
- Symbolism write the equation of the reaction: the equal sign =.
- State of equilibrium of a chemical system.
- Rate final progress of a reaction :

 τ = χ_final/ χ_maximal.

- Interpretation at the microscopic level of steady state in terms of kinetic impact effective between reactive species on the one hand and the other entities produced.

State of equilibrium of a system

- Reaction Quotient, Q_r : literal expression based on molar concentrations of dissolved species in a given state of the system.
- Generalization to various examples in aqueous solution homogeneous or heterogeneous (presence of solids).
- Determining the value of the quotient of reaction in the equilibrium state of the system, denoted Q_r,éq.

- Equilibrium constant K associated with the equation of a reaction at a given temperature.
-Influence of the initial state of a system on the final stage of completion of a reaction.

Changes associated with acid-base reactions in aqueous solution

- Autoprotolysis of the water equilibrium constant called the ionic product of water, denoted by K_e et pK_e.

- Scale pH solution acidic, basic and neutral.
- Acidity constant, denoted K_A et pK_A.

- Comparison of the behavior in solution, at the same concentration, acids and bases them together.
- Equilibrium constant associated with acid-base reaction.
- Diagrams prevalence and distribution of acidic and basic species in solution.
- Zone of turn of a colored indicator acid-base.
- PH-metric titration of an acid or base in water to determine the amount paid to the equity method and to choose a color indicator for an acid-base titration.
- What is the total transformation?
Determination of final progress of a reaction on an example of acid-base titration.

A self-limiting chemical steady state

- Reaction Quotient, Qr: literal expression (recall) and calculate its value for any given state of a system.
- Over time, the value of the reaction quotient Qr tends to the equilibrium constant K (criterion for spontaneous change).
- Illustration of the test on acid-base reactions and redox reactions.
 

Batteries, devices involving spontaneous transformations to recover energy

- Spontaneous transfer of electrons between chemical species (mixed or separated) for two couples oxidative / reductive type of metal ion / metal, Mⁿ⁺ / M_(s).
- Establishment and functioning of a cell: observation of the direction of flow of electricity, moving charge carriers, the role of salt bridge, electrode reactions.
The battery system off balance in its functioning as a generator.
During the spontaneous evolution, the value of the quotient of reaction tends to the equilibrium constant. Cell balance "dead battery" maximum amount of electricity charged in a circuit.
- Electromotive force of a battery (emf) E: measurement, electrode polarity, direction of current flow (related to the physics course).
- Example of conventional battery.

Examples of changes forced

- Identification of experimental possibility, in some cases to change the direction of evolution of a system by applying a current in the opposite direction to that observed when the system evolves spontaneously (forced transformation).
- Reactions to the electrodes, anode and cathode.
- Application to electrolysis: principle and examples of common applications and industries.

 

The reactions of esterification and hydrolysis

- Formation of an ester from an acid and an alcohol, write the equation of the corresponding reaction called esterification reaction.
- Hydrolysis of an ester, write the equation of the corresponding reaction.
- Identification of experimental steady state during transformations involving reactions of esterification and hydrolysis.
- Definition of the performance of a transformation.
- Definition of a catalyst.
- Control the speed of reaction temperature and catalyst.
- Control of the final state of a system: an over-reactive or disposal of a product.

Examples of monitoring the evolution of chemical systems made in the chemical industry and in the life sciences
 

- Change of a reagent
Synthesis of an ester from an acid anhydride and an alcohol.
Basic hydrolysis of esters: application to the saponification of fatty substances (preparations and properties of soap, structure-properties).

- Using catalysis
Homogeneous catalysis, heterogeneous enzyme: selectivity of the catalysts.

- Extract and identify chemical species

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